Early Muhammad (PBUH) and Mecca
Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born around 571CE in Mecca, in what is today,
Saudi Arabia. He was born in the Banu Hashim clan, named after his
great-grandfather, of the Quraysh tribe. Quraysh were a local power and ran
every aspect of Mecca's administration. Both the Quraysh and the Banu Hashim
were mostly merchants owing to, as tradition tells us, the importance of Mecca
in the Trans-Arabian trade. All of Arabia came to Mecca for an annual
pilgrimage and brought goods to sell which the Meccans then took up to the
Levant and sold. Mecca's importance, we're told, came from its status as a
Harem. A Harem is a place where, due to religious reasons, you couldn't shed
blood unless you wanted the wrath of the gods. At the time of Muhammad, there
were various Harems in Arabia associated with various deities. Mecca was
associated with Hubal, the god of, among other things, rain and war. Over time,
Arabian tribes had brought idols of their deities to Mecca, and stored them in
a shrine called the Kaaba, in order to turn it into a sort of universal Harem
which was watched over by all gods including THE God whom the Arabs called Allah.
The term Allah is a deformed version of the word Al-Illah meaning THE God. This
made it a perfect place to trade in a society where people had short tempers
and long swords. Along with taking part in it, the Meccans taxed this trade.
Trading Mission
Muhammad's father had passed away a short while before he was born and
his mother passed away when he was very young. He was taken in by his
grandfather who also passed away shortly after so, Muhammad grew up in the care
of his uncle and the chief of the Banu Hashim, Abu Talib. As a young boy,
Muhammad went on a trading mission with his uncle to Damascus. On the journey,
at a place in Syria, Muhammad was seen by a Christian monk named Bahira, This
monk recognised Muhammad as having the qualities of a prophet described in
Christian scripture and so, warned his uncle that the boy was in danger of
someone recognising him.His uncle abandoned the trading mission and returned to
Mecca. In another trading mission, Muhammad as a young man, roughly 25 years of age, work
for a rich widow named Khadija. She hired Muhammad to take goods to the Levant
and sell them. Muhammad did this and Khadija was so impressed by him that she
sent him a marriage proposal. She became his first and, for as long as she
lived, his only wife and a source of support when he started his life as God's
prophet.
Prophethood and Revelation
Around the age of 40, in the year 610 or so, Muhammad was meditating in
a cave outside Mecca, something he did often by this time, when he was visited
by the angel Jibrail or Gabriel. Jibrail told him to read, to which he replied,
"I can not read". Jibrail said it again and Muhammad gave the same
reply. The third time, Jibrail said the following..."Read in the name
of your lord who created.Created man from a clot of blood. Read! For your lord
is the most generous. Who taught by the pen. Taught man what he did not know."
These words, according to tradition, became the first revelation of the Quran
and turned Muhammad of Arabia, an orphan, into Muhammad, the Prophet of Allah. Though,
this transition wasn't immediate. He was scared and his wife, Khadija, took him
to a cousin of hers who was well-versed in the knowledge of the Torah and the
Bible. This cousin told Muhammad that he was indeed an Abrahamic Prophet in the
same tradition as Moses and Jesus.
The next revelation came three years after the first and jumpstarted
Muhammad's mission of preaching monotheism to the Meccans who were primarily Polytheists.
Though, the concept of monotheism wasn't an alien one. Arabia was full of
pockets of Christian and Jewish societies. In fact, Yemen had even had a
Christian kingdom for a while. Also, Meccans went up to the Christian Levant
all the time for trade. Some of them even owned land there. At this point, the
revelations of the Quran and Muhammad's preaching focused on abstract ideas
such as monotheism, the end of days, heaven and hell etc. Not much would have
distinguished Muhammad's teachings from that of Jesus or any other Abrahamic
Prophet.
Though, the idea of monotheism went against the entire economic model of
Meccan society. If they were to accept Muhammad's God, they'd have to throw
away the idols of all the other Arabian gods which were housed inside the Kaaba
and hence diminish or even destroy its importance. So, as expected, they wanted to stop Muhammad who was
preaching his message to anyone who'd listen. In the tribal societies of
Arabia, you were only as strong as your clan. You'd stick with them and they'd
provide protection. If you were attacked by someone, it would be an offence to
your clan and so a war could start between the two clans. These bloody
conflicts could go on for generations.Since Muhammad came from a fairly
influential clan, he couldn't be hurt as that would mean an offence against his
clan. The chief of the Banu Hashim, Abu Talib had raised Muhammad and loved him
very much so, he protected Muhammad. However, his early followers were mostly
the weak and the helpless people of Mecca who didn't have anyone to protect
them. The Meccans cracked down on them and made their lives miserable. From
financial boycotts to outright torture.
Madinah : City of the Prophet
Muhammad started looking for a place where they could settle down or at
least get temporary refuge. Somehow, he heard that the King of Ethiopia was a
kind man and sent an emissary to him. He agreed to give refuge to Muhammad's
followers. So many of them who could afford it, emigrated to Ethiopia around
615. Back in Mecca, Muhammad continued his mission. He was able to get a few
influential followers as well. Among these followers were names that later
became very prominent in Muhammad’s community such as Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Umar
ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf and Zubayr ibn
al-Awwam. However, in 619, Muhammad’s world was turned upside down when two of
the most important people in his life passed away. First, Khadija, his beloved
wife and source of emotional support. Second, Abu Talib, his uncle, guardian
and protector.After Abu Talib, another uncle called Abu Lahab became chief of
the Banu Hashim. He did not feel the same way about his nephew as Abu Talib
had. He withdrew his protection. Muhammad was now fair game to anyone who
wanted to hurt him.
Muhammad began looking for a new home for himself and his community. Luckily,
in 620, during the annual pilgrimage season, Muhammad met some people from a
nearby oasis town called Yathrib. They liked Muhammad's message and promised to
come back next year with more of their countrymen which they did. This
delegation offered Muhammad and his followers safe refuge if he came to their
city as an arbitrator. Yathrib was located around 350kms north of Mecca and was
home to various polytheist tribes as well as a significant population of Jews. They
had been fighting each other for generations and were looking for an impartial
arbitrator who could resolve disputes before swords were drawn. They saw Muhammad
as that man because he was charismatic and he was well-aware of both monotheistic
and Jewish traditions.
On the other side, the Meccans began an assassination plot. An
interesting thing from that plot is that every single clan in Mecca contributed
a man to the group of assassins, that way everyone would be involved in the
assassination. That mixed with Abu Lahab's lack of support for Muhammad, would
ensure that Banu Hashim wouldn't go to war with every single clan in Mecca and
would, hence, accept monetary compensation. Though, according to tradition, God
made Muhammad aware of this and he left that very night to go to Yathrib. Most
of his followers had already left, he along with his dear friend, Abu Bakr,
were among the last to make this journey.
In the year 622, Prophet Muhammad arrived in Yathrib with Abu Bakr. This
year is, hence, year one on the Islamic Hijra calendar and was used by later
Muslims to keep track of time. Yathrib was a very different place, in
comparison to Mecca. Where Mecca was surrounded by rocky mountains, Yathrib was
an oasis surrounded by agricultural fields and gardens. Where Mecca was
dominated by a single tribe, Yathrib was divided between various small tribes
as well as two big ones, the Aws and the Khazraj. Finally, where Mecca was
hostile to Muhammad’s message, Yathrib was welcoming. From this point on, traditionally,
Yathrib is known as “Madinah tul Rasul Allah”, meaning, “The city of the
Messenger of God”, shortened to Madinah. Muhammad’s migration to Madinah marks
a watershed, not just in the history of Islam but, also in the history of religions themselves. Muhammad
wasn’t just a preacher now, but he was now also a political and military
leader. The next eleven years, the time Muhammad spend in Madinah, guided and,
in fact, continue to guide his followers in almost every matter, on an
individual level and on the state level.
Before this, the Quran was focused on abstract concepts such as God’s
oneness, heaven, hell, the day of judgement etc. Now, the Quran would shift to
talk about more practical and worldly things. Muhammad’s first step in Madinah
was to settle his countrymen along with the natives.nMuhammad’s followers from
Mecca came to be known as the Muhajirun, “The Emigrants”. Muhammad’s followers
from Madinah, who helped the Muhajirun came to be known as the Ansar, “The
Helpers”.
The Charter of Madinah
The the earliest piece of an actual historical document from Muhammad’s
life, aside from the Quran, was the written charter signed among the people of
Madinah at that time. Within the first year of Muhammad’s arrival in Yathrib,
he created a document that is commonly known by Muslims as, “The Charter or
Constitution of Madinah”. It wasn’t a constitution in the modern sense of the
word, of course. It was more of a treaty between the various tribes of Yathrib
including the Jewish ones and the newly arrived followers of Muhammad. Even the
most skeptical of scholars today agree that the document is largely authentic. It
may have been edited later on and might even have been multiple documents in
the beginning but it is largely authentic. In its 60 or so clauses, Muhammad
lays out the relationship that was to exist between almost everyone who lived
in Madinah. One of the themes that appear in the document is that of unity
between Muhammad’s followers and everyone else. The parties to the agreement
must recognize themselves as a unit with Muhammad at its head. Where, to his
followers, Muhammad was the instrument of God’s will, to the Jews, he was
merely an arbitrator. These parties must help each other and bring their
disputes to Muhammad. They were also not allowed to help any outsiders against
each other, this included the Meccans. This social unit is called an Ummah in
the document. Interestingly, today, the term applies only to Muslims but
evidently, back then it applies to Muhammad’s followers who believed in him
being God’s prophet as well as his allies who didn’t, including the Jews of
Madinah. To some scholars this indicates that Muhammad didn’t see himself and
his followers as being distinct or, at least, distinct enough from other Abrahamic
religions such as Judaism. Interestingly
enough, it appears in the Constitution of Madinah which indicates that it was
probably an addition made in the later centuries.
Battles of Badr and Trench
Later event reported Meccans had seized the properties of the Muhajirun.
This gave Muhammad justification for raiding Meccan caravans, since Madinah was
close to the trade route that went between Mecca and Greater Syria. As Muhammad
raided the Meccans, it brought him and the Meccans to the brink of war. The
first battle came in 624, at the location of Badr. According to tradition, the
Meccans were thrice as many as the Believers but still, due to Muhammad’s
strategic brilliance, he won the day. This assured, for his followers, that God
was, indeed, on their side. Shortly after this battle, Muhammad expelled the
Jewish tribe of Banu Qaynuqa. According to tradition, the Banu Qaynuqa had
harassed a Believer woman in a market which had led to bloodshed between the
two groups.Muhammad besieged them and after they surrendered, he expelled them.
The next year, in 625, the Meccans came with an army to exact revenge
for Badr. This time, again, we’re told, they were thrice as many as the
Believers. However, due to miscommunication among Muhammad’s men, the Meccans
were able to attack from the rear and rout Muhammad’s army. Even Muhammad
himself was injured. This battle was a defeat for the Believers but the Meccans
themselves broke before they could do any significant damage to Madinah. So,
the Believers lived to fight another day. A prominent figure on the Meccan side
was Khalid ibn al-Walid who had a big hand indefeating the Believers. He became
the sharpest dagger in Muhammad’s armory a few years later. This time too, as
with the aftermath of Badr, Muhammad expelled a Jewish tribe. There are many reasons
mentioned for why Muhammad did it. Some sources say that the Banu Nadir,
sensing weakness in Muhammad’s position, challenged him for power. Others say
that the Banu Nadir were planning to assassinate Muhammad. Whatever the case,
they were besieged and expelled.
Around the end of 626, Muhammad came to hear of a confederation formed
between the expelled Jewish tribes and the Meccans. A huge army of 10,000 was
coming to end Muhammad’s community at Madinah. With the suggestion of Salman
the Persian, we’re told, Muhammad decided to defend himself by building a
trench around Madinah’s north side which was the only direction that Madinah could
be attacked from since it had mountains and gardens on the other three sides. The
Confederation besieged Madinah but couldn’t get over the trench. After a siege
of a month, the Confederation broke and the army went home. After this, came
the most controversial event from Muhammad’s life, the massacre of the Banu
Qurayza. Banu Qurayza were a Jewish tribe that also lived in Madinah. They had
been signatory to the Constitution but during the Battle of the Confederation, they
had promised to helped the Confederation. They would’ve attacked from inside
Madinah to weaken Muhammad’s position. This was, of course, a serious offence. Muhammad
laid siege to them and when they surrendered, he delivered judgement. All men
would be killed, all women and children will be enslaved. This resulted in the
execution of some 700 men. Muhammad didn’t deliver this judgement on his own. He
had appointed Sa'd ibn Mu'adh for this job. Sa’d, we’re told, was an expert on
Jewish scripture and from the Aws tribe, which was an ally of the Banu Qurayza.
Though, he was a Believer. He had looked at Jewish scripture and decided Banu
Qurayza’s fate from there.
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Around the turn of the year 628-629, Muhammad and some 1,400 of his
companions went to Mecca as pilgrims. The Meccans thought this was an invading
army and quickly reacted. Muhammad stopped at Hudaybiyyah to send an envoy to
Mecca to ensure them of his peaceful intentions. The Meccans held the man
Muhammad had sent which led to Muhammad thinking the Meccans had killed him.Right
there, Muhammad took an oath from his companions to avenge their fallen brotheror
die trying. Meanwhile, the Meccans approached Muhammad to ensure him that his
envoy was safe and that they wanted peace but they won’t let him perform the
pilgrimage this year. This resulted in the treaty of Hudaybiyyah. The treaty
had various points but a few that are relevant to us are the following. First,
Muhammad and his followers would leave this year and return the next to observe
the pilgrimage at which point, the Meccans will retreat to the mountains. Second,
there will be truce of ten years between the Meccans and Muhammad. Finally,
whichever tribes want to join Muhammad or the Meccans can do so but they would
also be bound by this treaty, ergo, they’d have to respect the truce as well.* Many
of Muhammad’s followers were opposed to the treaty but it was signed and the
Quran called it a manifest victory.Within a year of the treaty, victory would
indeed come.
Shortly after returning from Mecca, Muhammad attacked the Jewish
stronghold at Khaybar. This was a major economic center for the Jewish
community of Arabia. Not only was it agriculturally prosperous, it was also
home to some of the Jewish tribes that Muhammad had expelled. According to
Islamic sources, they were allying themselves with other tribes to attack
Madinah. Though, in reality, it’s possible Muhammad just wanted his rear
secured. After a siege and assault, Khaybar surrendered. Muhammad allowed them
to return to their lives except they now had to pay half their produce to
Madinah. By taking this, Muhammad had firmly secured himself in Madinah. It was
a considerable boost to his reputation as a commander in the eyes of the
Meccans.
Restoring Abrahimic Faith
While the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was supposed to be valid for ten years,
circumstance changed and it expired only over a year later. One of the tribes
allied with Mecca attacked a tribe allied with Muhammad. This was a violation
of the treaty. Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Meccans, approached Muhammad and
asked him to keep the treaty intact. However, for Muhammad, that was not an option. He couldn’t hope
to win more allies if he couldn’t even protect his existing ones. For Muhammad,
there was no option but war. Muhammad marched his army towards Mecca. Many of
the allies of Mecca abandoned them to join him. The Quraysh knew that it was
over and so, Mecca capitulated without a fight. Only a dozen or so of
Muhammad’s worst enemies were executed. Muhammad then rode to the Kaaba and
destroyed all the idols stored in there. According to his teachings, the Kaaba
was originally built by Abraham but had been corrupted by the polytheists of
Arabia. So, he was just returning it to its original purpose.
Series of Battles
Muhammad was now very confident and at the peak of his power. His luck
also seems to have turned. Many prominent Meccans abandoned Mecca and joined
him, including, the aforementioned Khalid ibn al-Walid. Also, Muhammad’s
followers from Ethiopia returned to join him in Madinah. Many new tribes allied
with him. He even sent an army into Byzantine territory which was pushed back
but without a lot of damage. Though, there was a personal trauma for Muhammad
who lost a cousin and an adopted son in the battle. By the end of 629, Muhammad
was powerful and had an army of around 10,000 people.
The same was true for the pilgrimage, which was heavily pre-Islamic but
Islamic tradition adopted it claiming it was started by Abraham. Muhammad had
struggled over his enemies and God’s message reigned supreme. Muhammad then
conquered tribes around Mecca and attacked the city of Ta’if. After taking it,
Muhammad was, without a doubt, the most powerful figure in Western Arabia. He
then sent delegations all over Arabia inviting them to join him. Many did and
Muhammad now had allies all over Arabia. He, once again, attacked the
Byzantines by marching to the city of Tabuk. The purpose behind this campaign
isn’t fully clear, though, some parts of Islamic tradition say that Muhammad
had heard of impending attack by the Byzantines on Madinah so, he marched there
to meet them. Though, even according to Islamic tradition, nothing was
achieved.
Last Sermon
In 632, Muhammad performed the Hajj or Major Pilgrimage and gave, what
is now called, the Farewell Sermon, in which he laid down the final principles
his community was to follow. He fell illshortly after returning to Madinah and
passed away some month later in the year 632, at the age of 63. He was buried
in the house of his wife Aisha, where he had died. This is the biography of the
Prophet as written by compilers at least 100 years after Muhammad’s death. Some
of it is very plausible, if not accurate.
